Student Research Papers: Management

Showing posts with label Management. Show all posts

Assortment management. The most common errors.

Range control everything, even those who do not know how to do it right, and those who think they know, but really it is not.

Different and can not be, because the trade of goods without - it does not trade or no trade (we all remember the empty shelves of Soviet stores). And if you need the goods you purchase and sell it, then you have already run a range of products. And if you do, it is very likely that you have the same problems faced by the vast majority of peers, and who fail to achieve adequate performance. Illiquid products in stock, overstocked warehouse, a small turnover, as a consequence of lack of working capital, and again in a circle first - a typical situation for many, agree.

What does this lead to? In fact, as the personal practice, errors in the management of an assortment of typical. They can be found in a small shop and a large network. Let's talk about the most important.

The absence or lack of understanding, clear objectives assortment management.

Any activity should begin with a statement of purpose. I think this is obvious and already commonplace. Where are we going? Here is the first question that we must answer at the beginning of each path, and trading is no exception. What is the goal that you set for the management of range? Oddly enough, but much of the professionals responsible for inventory management, generally find it difficult to answer this question. The vast majority of answers - increasing turnover. And here we are faced with another problem - the problem of false targets. "How?" - You may ask. After all, we are talking about trade, and that trade its main objective to identify ... Here I like to give one example that he had not invented. I suggested to him one of the owners of the trade network, with whom I was fortunate enough to work with. One day, while at the next meeting we were talking about the turnover, as the main objective, it is proposed to pass through the hands of the participants in a circle large sum of money, so that all of it, to the last cent, then came back to him. Turnover? Yes, why not. That's just what would be a huge amount of money that has not been, nor a dollar was left in the hands of those present. Nobody got PROFITS. A good example, in my opinion, to demonstrate the fallacy of this. We are in the business, and business is no profit - just not possible, or it will not last long in business. Agree that the range and management - is the foundation of retail business. No matter how much we did not say that for us the most important thing a buyer and complete satisfaction of his needs and wants, not having arrived, we will not achieve anything. And the benefit of our customers, then they will bring others. Any economist can argue - say, the profit - is revenue minus costs. And where is the cost management in the management of range? Yet how, where? After all, the range - the main zatratoobrazueschee element in the trade. If we put aside all the costs for facilities and equipment, staff salaries and taxes, what is left? Remaining costs of the acquisition, storage, processing of goods. Goods to buy, sell, unload, place in a warehouse, put on the trading floor, to write off damage, to raise funds for the purchase of a new product, if the proportion of illiquid assets does not allow trafficking to finance themselves, and so on. Do you agree? I think so. Therefore the purpose of inventory management - profit, through the formation of the maximum effective range.

The absence of a formalized concept of containing the answers to basic questions.

Once we are clear what we want, as a rule, the question remains how to achieve this. Lack of concepts understandable to those who work with a range, the following is a common mistake. The task of the concept range - to formulate the basic principles and objectives of inventory management, identify the target audience of buyers. This document should be the basis for inventory management. Link, connecting the efforts of various experts having different opinions and ideas about how to configure and manage the range of what it should be.

Talk about the product line concept can be very long. I will discuss one of its most important parts - the definition of the target audience. Advising retailers, I have repeatedly faced with the problem of what I call multi-directional commercial efforts.

Imagine the following, a little exaggerated, picture. A man of moderate means has decided to spend a pleasant evening with a bottle of good, but not very expensive wine, let's Chilean. To him, he usually prefers cheese and olives, good quality, and the olives, of course, with bone. In addition, he would like to buy at the same time ... Well, perhaps leave it at that. So he went to the store and going to a wine rack, discovered a large selection of domestic wines, a pair of cheap French (as it was written, but doubt) and several expensive class Grand Cru (which he still can not afford), a little Bulgarian, well and that's it. Though, digging, he found a bottle of decent Argentina. Despite the fact that he wanted to Chilean, in order to save time, put it in the basket. Then went to the olive tree, and immediately found the necessary bank. Well, finally, cheese ... But he did not find cheese. That is, of course, he was, but quite common that even his mother in salads in Soviet times. What does he do next? The controversial issue. Many people will assume that he still buys what it is, but for the rest will go to another store. But practice shows that it is unlikely. The higher the income, and he, as we recall, confident man of moderate means, the higher the preference and less you want to run to different stores to stand in each, albeit small, but the queue and so on. So he lays out baskets olives and wine, which, by the way, and so is not quite what he wanted. Or maybe just throw a basket of those "at the same time", which we missed before. In general, it goes to another store, and the unfortunate seller in the fifty-first time that day, put on the shelf jar of olives, which is why no one has bought - probably expensive. And why should they booked the whole box? - He thinks. And the thing is that wine, cheese and canned buy different people with different tastes and preferences. One believes that it is necessary to put on a shelf that is cheaper, the other - more expensive, and the third just loves the smell of cheese childhood. They do not focus on one customer, one target audience. They clearly do not know how to position itself shop. Their work is divided, as the assortment which they form. As a result of problems with inventory, sales, profits.

The absence of indicators of the range and management activities to them.

How do you know that I work well? Just because I feel that way? On what basis do I criticize? The answer should be a number of parameters describing how my goals, and the result of my work. I will not be a long story about the systems of KPI `s (key performance indicators), which are used by the largest companies. I can only say that if you want your people to work well, give them a performance, a set of indicators, not just the amount of turnover. After all, when you're asking you to weigh the sausage, you just call the same weight. A seller, looking on the scale assesses whether he did what you asked him.

The system of indicators must necessarily be associated with the motivation, but that's another big topic.

References

For preparation of this work were used materials from the site http://megarost.ru/

Management team and management model

In practice, the management of companies operating successfully than individuals and teams of several people - business owners or hired managers.

In the West, the most popular commands like "solo" and "triumvirate" that are found in about half of cases. In Russia the most popular "solo" and "Duets." The lower popularity in the Russian teams, consisting of the top three leaders, due to the fact that the two are often combined against a third, which as a result is "left behind" the company.

Consider the various models of management teams.

Team-type solo - this is one leader (the owner or a hired manager), who leads the subordinates. Of course, it is - a powerful man with strong energy that can unite people around you and inspire to achieve important goals. He currently focuses on almost everything: strategy, finance, organization within the company, cooperation with partners and customers. Let us examine the "pros" and "cons."

Pros team, "Solo":

saving time for decision-making, as the power and responsibility are concentrated in the same hands;

Consolidation of the company, corporate patriotism, personified by key leaders;

clear, institutionalized "clear" chain of command.

Cons team "solo" can be seen at once: it is difficult to find such a gifted and strong man. But there are other difficulties:

responsibility and the load at the drive leading large, so there are cases when the leader falls ill and is unable to work and who "pass the flag," he does not know (or can not). Losing management "core", the company can quickly deteriorate;

there is a risk of wrong decisions because they do not implement the principle of "One head - good, two - better." In addition, the consolidated team, as a rule, there is no criticism;

there is a risk of subjective and irrational decisions, which always is, if decisions are made by one person.

Because of these drawbacks, one in five management model, based on the type of "solo", broke up after doing my general problem, or it replaced the heads.

Fairly common management model performs in an "triumvirate" in which joint management carried out by three of the leader. Each of them has its own line of work and specialization, often roles are divided between them as "visionary", "performer", "peacemaker."

"The Seer" - a leader with good intuition and the ability to think strategically. He advocates a developer of business ideas and concepts for its implementation. Most often it is the director of marketing, personifying on his entire company as a whole in the eyes of the media.

"Contractor" is implementing the idea and the concept of "visionary." He knows the intricacies of professional work in the industry and manages the finances, human resources and organization of the work.

The first and second leaders are often in conflict, because the first is dissatisfied form and timing of implementation of his ideas, and the second had to hold back the fantasy of the first due to the limited resources and capabilities (and they always somehow limited). Therefore stands between them "peacemaker" who has diplomatic and sociable and maintains relationships with investors and partners.

The trio of leaders - the most stable model of governance, no group of leaders, based on this model, do not split up after the great success in business.

Advantages of the management model, built by the type of the trio, are as follows.

1. High-speed development of the company provided that the division of leadership roles at the same time makes it possible to solve different issues.

2. Reduces the risk of incorrect decision-making, as the impact of irregular, irrational and subjective factors is significantly reduced.

3. In the case of the "loss" of one of the leaders of the company you can save by choosing another employee on a similar business characteristics.

Despite the fact that the "triumvirate" offers stability and efficiency, we can talk about it the following disadvantages.

1. It works successfully, if professionalism, intelligence, motivation and dedication of the three leaders are at a high level. We had to advise the company in which the two "pulling" of a third or even a "pulling" two. If this occurs, the "troika" of leaders into conflict.

2. "Triumvirate" will be more successful under one condition: if there full of confidence between the leaders, which is not always found.

Less common, but also actively functioning team leaders, interacting by model duo, quartet, professional teams, partners, etc.

The management team has the type of duo consists of two leaders, whose interaction is based on the professional and psychological complement each other. If the first - hyperactive and "hasty", sociable and irritable, the second - low-key, medium-level and calm, with a strong tendency to self-control, and prudent, thoughtful decisions. There may be some psychological models:

if the first one - a clear leader, the second in relation to it - driven by the Executive;

If the first - a policy aimed at communication and contact, and the company manages the personnel policy and personnel, the second - a professional, who is responsible for the company's finance, strategy, development of product range;

If the first - a pragmatist, the second - Analyst;

Finally, if the first leader - rigid and authoritarian, the second - a flexible and diplomatic.

Pros team in an "duo":

reduce risks in decision-making;

the creation of a more versatile in function and therefore a more effective system of management;

the speed and quality of decision-making.

Cons "duo" is often associated with its potential instability:

if the two partners distrust arises, "duet" breaks, and often from the same company, there are two single line of the company;

between managers working on the model of the duo, often there are conflicts and confrontation, resulting in one of them leaves the company.

So, to sum all this, we can make general and specific conclusions. The main conclusion is that the top management team must take into account the laws of psychological compatibility. Hence the need to assess whether the combination of the leaders on the major psychological parameters, among which in the first place are dynamic and socio-psychological characteristics of the individual.

The dynamic characteristics of the individual. In modern psychology, talking about that side of the personality, they mean the quality of temperament. It is noticed that in working hard choleric show themselves, even though they are often the most successful in business. For example, if the first leader - choleric, the most suitable partner for him - sanguine (active person with good self-control). Phlegmatic also works well with the choleric, but it will need to "speed up" and become more energetic and sociable. Choleric, too, need to adapt to a sluggish, but stable, reliable and responsible partner, phlegmatic, develop the self-restraint, self-control and the ability to stop when "puts".

It is not recommended to work in tandem choleric and melancholic because the activity, and in some situations, restlessness, irritability and sharpness choleric harmful to the sensitive and emotional melancholy. Melancholic in general very difficult to administrative work, because it is prone to depression, he developed a sense of guilt, he needs the sympathy and support. Over the past years, we have very rarely met people with a temperament in leadership positions. But if life forces to take responsibility, these mandatory and conscientious people are trying to do their work quality and "remake" themselves so that the appearance of their temperament does not manifest itself. In this communication, and behavior can be sanguine or choleric, and only a deep psychological testing shows that in front of you - melancholic. In general, the most common choleric and sanguine, much less - phlegmatic, and as an exception to the rule - melancholic. Of course, most people are of mixed temperament, but stand temperamental traits that are dominant. A man is often associated choleric and sanguine characteristics, the other - melancholic and phlegmatic. Rarely combined choleric and melancholic quality or choleric and phlegmatic features.

If it has a rare combination in one person is present in the behavior, decisions and actions it can manifest inconsistency and unpredictability.

Contradictory qualities can be present in the same person because of the presence of "internal" temperament due to heredity and education in conditions of formation of the "external" temperament.

Successful cooperation in a team of top managers suggests compatibility on personal characteristics:

1. by social roles: If the first - a bright leader, it is best if the second in relation to it will be driven and tuned to work in runtime. "The two bears in one den," ie, the two leaders are unlikely to be able to communicate effectively "in the same team." Two performers also not be able to "drag" the firm because it will avoid the risk, responsibility and stress;

2. the style of management: If the first leader - tough and authoritarian, the latter must implement soft, diplomatic or affiliate management style;

3. the style of thinking: if the first leader - a pragmatist and a realist, it is not bad if it was a second analyst.

References

For preparation of this work were used materials from the site http://www.elitarium.ru/

Human Resource Management

Introduction

As part of this report, I would like to talk about some of the issues of personnel management. Human resource management - management is aimed at the development and effective use of human resources of the organization. The frames are the most valuable and important part of the productive forces of society.

In Russia, in the presence of various forms of ownership, and the progress of market relations, competition and growth occurs without deliberate uncertainty HR strategy, taking into account alternative scenarios can not do. The enterprise must take an active role in the study of demand and supply of skilled labor, to search for new staff and at the same time to adapt their own human resources to increased demands through the mechanisms of learning and dynamic organizational restructuring.

Today, the most interesting and actual direction of personnel management is the management of talent or Talent-Management - to attract, manage, develop and retain key employees. The introduction of technology talent management is a common business idea with decent investment and potential profitability, ie, it is a ratio of the high risks to the expected profit.

The value of talent management at the present stage

Talent management is playing an increasingly important role in business: today without his active application can not succeed

Until recently, the word talent from Western and Russian managers caused a backlash, since it implies the need for more effort and energy to fight for the reduction of staff in the "average" condition.

A widespread theory of the "bubble", according to which the talent makes its way itself.

But the 21st century is changing representation of the talents, and today the companies are moving from dealing with them in their cultivation. The reason is quite simple: market leadership is provided by a talented staff.

Have the talent - it's not a goal but a competitive advantage.

In a tight fight for the consumer when there is an alignment level of technology, marketing and lobbying, a simple increase in the salary, the annual change of top manager or an attempt smanivaniya staff from competitors no longer gives the same effect as before.

From a business perspective, the talent - the ability to achieve exceptional results, recognize and reward the owners, managers and consumers.

Characteristics of talents: they tend to a unique perception of their professional duties, they are independent, have a phenomenal amount of energy, creative, customized to continuous improvement, put work above all else, highly intelligent, are part of the dominant coalition.

There is also a shift in the main characteristic of talent in the early and mid-career. For "young" talent is paramount indicator of the effectiveness of their activities and a high IQ, then the same to the fore EQ (emotional intelligence) negotiation skills, the ability to understand others, the ability to build a team, a good reputation and relationships with colleagues.

Talent Management (talent management) - is a system aimed at increasing the level of competence in critical from the point of view of business activities through the introduction and development of programs to attract, acquire, develop, promote and retain talent.

But it must be remembered that the effect will not be visible even today and tomorrow. Talent management programs are beginning to bear fruit and a half or two years after their launch, this is a strategic investment in staff. In order to succeed, requires patience.

Talent management is akin to the work of a gardener - to grow the fruit, it takes time.

Talent management in theory - is the realization of a rather simple postulates and ideas:

- It is necessary to hire the best;

- Need to look for talent within the company;

- The identified talents have purposefully "coach", the most effective method - mentoring;

- Talents you have to pay several times more than the others, because they are working effectively;

- Periodically assess the need to achieve talent and giving new directions;

- Talent - is an employee of the company, and not a separate entity.

However, the implementation of the theory is much more complicated than that, but, nevertheless, to be successful, it is best to follow them. Today, the question is, do you want to be a leader - look and grow talent.

The historical experience of the talent management system

Let us recall how this problem is approached in Russia under Peter I. The purpose of Peter was to turn Russia into a European state.

Peter I decided to classical problem of talent management: put the right people in the right positions at the right time, in line with the strategic objectives.

Consider the steps to solve this problem.

Peter I understood: the existing state apparatus (managers) are not able to solve tasks and do not have the relevant managerial and professional competencies (skills). Retrain existing aid (both military officialdom) is ineffective. And initially to solve the problem, he drew foreigners, but realized at some Varangian does not go far, and he has formed a so-called talent pool (or pool of talent). The source of the formation and the milieu from which the selected talents became aristocratic youth. The reason for this was the presence of the young nobility of the following competencies:

• Willingness to learn (learning ability)

• The desire to make a career (leadership)

• The desire to change the country (the ability to change)

• Patriotism (the presence of a system of values)

• Commitment to Peter (loyalty)

But as a potential for the development of disease that requires more professional competence and skills of intercultural interaction, Peter I sent these potentially talented, or Hi-Po (high potential-high potential) to study in Europe, and creates a new system of education in Russia. To put it in modern terms, a systematic way involved in training and development of talent. At this the king does not stop, it keeps track of career these talents.

And besides, Peter I create all the conditions for attracting talent to Russia from Europe pays much bestow ranks, land titles. As a result, Russia opened a window to Europe.

Since then, it took several hundred years, there was a set of terms and definitions, special programs, but the essence of this concept has not changed. And its application in today's market is particularly important.

The main stages of the modern talent-management

Any project on talent management involves the following basic steps:

1.osoznanie need for talent-management

2.poisk high-potential employees in the collective,

3.realizatsiya development programs,

4.Use and retention of employees in the company.

The first stage - the realization by the fact that management is not all employees should be treated equally. In practice, this is the longest stage, as it was on the understanding of the leaders of that talented employees requires an individual approach, wasted years.

The second stage - the search and identification of talent.

Talent Search can be conducted at any level, from sellers, cashiers, those of ordinary skill, ending the top management of the company. However, the vast majority of projects on talent-management relate to leadership.

Skills differ from competencies that skills are developed faster than competence. Competence or is a person or not, they can only develop if a person sees the need to train and development. However, not all competencies can be developed, for example, such a competence as a creative approach to solving problems, develop or very difficult or impossible.

The competence include:

1. Decisionmaking

2. Perseverance in achieving goals

3. Open-mindedness and adaptability

4. Clarity of presentation

5. Impact

6. The motivation of subordinates to achieve results

7. Cross-functional interaction

8. Corporatism

Through interviews with managers of different tests is determined by the level of skills and competencies possessed by employees, among them the identification of the most talented. However, it should be noted that the assessment process - a lot of stress for employees, regardless of their level. There are cases call the ambulance for some participants. This stage requires a very serious relationship, do not pick up the tests and procedures, focusing on the principle "The more, the better!"

The third stage - the development and implementation of training programs in life. That is not enough to find the talent, it's important to give him the opportunity to realize their full potential for the benefit of the company. Here, there are two approaches:

1 - to develop what is the strengths of the employee. This approach is shared by most companies.

2 - Pay close attention to the weaknesses of the employee. Proponents of this approach believe that it is impossible to obtain a harmonious efficient worker, if he had some mild competence.

On the basis of data obtained in the identification process, the development of the program is compiled.

Program development, mentoring, and rewards, of course, must be linked to the achievement of their goals now, but talent management, more than any other organizational process requires an individual approach. Perfectly appropriate to create new projects for a particular employee, flexible working for him, special training abroad. The main thing - to remember that these people are pushing the company's increased attention to itself and with the right attitude to them are able to provide 80% of the results.

The fourth stage - the most problematic stage - the use of trained personnel. Here, the main difficulty is that it is not ordinary employees with an average level of opportunities. Keep a man with high potential can only offering him a part in interesting projects that require him to use all of its resources. Experience shows that it will also have to seriously compete with the existing stereotypes of many leaders that they have the exclusive right to their employees and that the transition to another department or to another position depends entirely on the will of the chief.

To keep the employee can use a variety of methods. It all depends on your ability and imagination. The basic method - a system of engagement, which is a key factor in this regard. Just do not forget about the following areas:

- Creation and maintenance of learning opportunities.

- Articulating real, achievable steps for career growth.

- The offer of benefits to meet the needs and interests of employees.

- Create a system of qualified supervisors, mentors.

- Adoption of advanced principles of personnel management and being faithful to these principles in business.

- Creating a work environment conducive to the growth of the organization.

- Creating the right reward system.

The absence of at least one of these steps leads to the loss of talent to the company.

Conclusion

In Russia boom in talent management emerged in 2005, but five years - a short time for the widespread implementation of the concept. And manage talented people is always difficult, as the scale of it requires a virtuoso performance. Therefore, in the development of this concept was quite a lot of mistakes. For example, many organizations have formed our talent pool and did not know what to do with it. For an employee is caught in it, it was obvious that after a while it should appoint a management position, because the "bench" and it implies. Not going through the year - two in the first team, hurt and disappointed "reservist" left the company, assuring her "brain drain." Thus, provision has not generated a result.

However, such errors have allowed Russia to gain experience in the design and implementation of talent management. And this experience shows that getting a return on talent not on its own, without some of the corporate culture, the relationship without talent management and business strategy.

Also, do not take talent management as a universal principle - one companies need it, others - no. There is a simple indicator: if the amount of personnel expenses in the budget of no more than 20 - 25 percent, and if the core business is weakly dependent on the perpetrators, then think about talent management is no need. Need to take care of managerial accounting, supply chain, technology, and other useful things. And, accordingly, on the contrary, if the business is dependent on the staff if human life can not be without highly qualified specialists, if the company is constantly and steadily growing, the talent management - this is what you need.

References

1. Vesnin VR Practical management personnel: A Handbook for personnel work. - Moscow: Yurist 2006. - 496 ..

2. Ivanchenko LA Fundamentals of Success: theory and practice of management. - M: Thought, 2003. - 287 p.

3. The journal "Personnel Company", article "Talent Management. Western folly or the future of Russian business », ? 7 '2008

4. The journal "Personnel Company", article "Talent Management - among the main priorities of most companies», ? 6 '2010

5. http://hrm.ru/upravlenie-talantami-vyzovy-segodnjashnego-dnja

6. http://hrm.ru/talent-menedzhment-kak-opredelit-obuchit-i-uderzhat-talantlivogo-sotrudnika

7. http://www.trainings.ru/library/articles/?id=8612

8. http://www.hr-portal.ru/article/chto-takoe-kompetentsii

Management "soft" subsystem organization. Balanced goal - a balanced motivation. What conditions must meet the incentive system

Modern control systems, automation of business processes, technologization management - the whole arsenal of the science of management is aimed at improving the efficiency of the company. Companies are investing heavily in the development of management systems, aiming to build a perfect system. In carrying out projects of one of the most frequently asked questions: "How long does it take to implement the system (budget management, organizational change, process management, strategic management, etc.)?" And the timing of the introduction of concern on the part of the customer is quite clear: it is well known that the time - is money. Competition intensifies, companies receive the benefits that are able to make quick decisions, the most effective in the circumstances.

The answer to this question has to be divided into two parts: the development of the system takes several months, but the start-up ... it usually requires running at least a year, during which requires close attention to key managers and specialists to work designed mechanism. And this time it is very difficult to cut. What is the reason for this gap?

The fact that the organization of the system consists of two subsystems: a "hard" and "soft". Rigid system - a "mechanistic" part of the organization, which quite clearly responds to the impact, improving the rigid system is carried out by changing the composition of its elements and the relationships between them - the restructuring. That we can change it when the design changes in the control system, it can be changed in a matter of months. But it results in action "soft" system - a system whose control response can be predicted only with a certain probability. The basis of the "soft" system is composed of people, and the main mechanism for changing its behavior - education and persuasion.

Motivation - the basic mechanism controlling the behavior of "soft" subsystem, reinforcing the "correct" behavior and punish him for the "wrong" behavior in the organization. We will try to describe the minimum set of requirements for the system of motivation. The ideal system should take into account the motivation of the entire set of existing requirements for workers (as the most well-known models can be used Maslow's pyramid) -, respectively, in the composition of the compensation package (a set of values that an employee receives in exchange for labor organizations) should include both tangible (money, gifts etc.) and intangible stimuli (recognition status, etc.). Recently, more and more compensation package is formed on a "menu" when given within the employee can independently configure the structure of the compensation package. But the breadth and scope of needs does not guarantee the effectiveness of the system of motivation.

Still, some employers nourish the illusion that high wages and so-called social package - the basis of motivation, and there are great surprised that the motivation drops. Consider the structure of the system of motivation, considering that the compensation package consists of material and immaterial parts, covering the basic values of employees.

The incentive system should ideally consist of three levels: the first is responsible for the attraction and retention of employees, it is based on job responsibilities and relationships in the team, and it is expressed in the constant part of the compensation package. I especially want to emphasize that the constant part of the compensation package anybody to what does not motivate, it is a basis for ensuring a minimum level of protection of the worker, what Herzberg called "hygiene factors".

Encourage the organization needs two things: good behavior and achievement of results. These two levels are a tool and incentives. Typically, the organization promoted or "correct" behavior or achievement of results. The art of designing the system of motivation is to create a variable part of the compensation package that rewards "good behavior", and the bonus part that promotes the achievement of results.

Very often the search for a balance between the promotion and encouragement for the result of the "correct" behavior - not a trivial task. Which of the sales managers better: one that performs all the standards of the organization or one that breaks them, but seeks the maximum amount of sales? How will his initiative on the result of the company in the long term?

In the late 90s there was a tool that transformed the art of constructing a system of incentives to technology. This tool is the Balanced Scorecard (BSC) (Balanced Scorecard). First, the system requires a shift of attention from the "post-mortem" of financial to non-financial indicators in determining financial results. Second, each of the objectives in the map parameters described by the MSP and the resulting form the indicators that are almost ready for the assessment result and the "correct" behavior.

In a short article is unlikely to get a complete description of the technology of construction of the balanced scorecard, but will try to illustrate this with an example, took place in real life.

As an example, consider a mid-sized manufacturing company working in the field of FMCG. At the beginning of the development of the motivation variable part of the compensation package production staff (both managers and workers) was tied to the implementation of the plan in terms of sales. Evaluation of competitive advantage has shown that the goods purchased by consumers for whom the important functional characteristics of the consumer with stable quality. It is clear that the existing system of incentives in no way contributed to the competitiveness of the enterprise market. Quite the contrary - the pursuit of the shaft, resulting in poor quality, and the impact on sales of production could not - the products are manufactured to order. In the course of building a cause-and-effect relations in the map for the following indicators have been identified, in terms of performance of the application, the application performance of the range, providing a stable product quality. See Table 1.

Table 1. Examples of indicators

Goal

The resulting figure

Leading Indicators

Performance of the application in its entirety

Completion percentage by volume in the quarter - 100%

The average of the daily application - 100%

Performance of the application on the range

Performing range for the quarter - 100%

The average of the daily application - 100%

Providing consistent quality products

The number of shifts from ranking point below 9.9 points - 6 shifts

The average ranking point of product quality - 9.9 points

At the beginning of the implementation indicators were: performance of the application in terms of volume - 100%, the range - 84% (ie, increased by an amount of regrading), quality products - 9.1 points (a procedure was developed quality assessment score for the group of indicators ). Leading indicators are used to determine the amount of the monthly premium (up to 70% of the fixed parts), resulting - for the calculation of the quarterly bonus (up to 100% of the monthly fixed parts)

6 months after the introduction of the following results: The application was performed by volume at 100%, the range of the daily average bid was 98-99%, the weighted average ranking point of quality - 9.9 points, the resulting index quality was made in two months of the three bonus has not been credited.

According to information available to me in the third quarter for the first time was accrued bonus for performance indicators on the range. In my view, this is an example of successful use of the MSP approaches to building a system of incentives

Thus, for the construction of an effective incentive system, the following conditions are met:

Availability formal purposes, each of which shall be described using and forming the resulting indicator,

indicators should be assigned to departments and staff,

and forming a resultant indicators must be set up corresponding compensation package elements, the size of the variable should be such that the "wrong" behavior resulting in a significant decrease in values and bonus portion should cause the satisfaction of achieving the result.

Such a construction of the motivation system will significantly reduce the time of development and start-up of changes in the management system, and as can be seen from the above example, the period may be reduced to one or two quarters. Compared with the conventional one to three years - a significant time savings.

References

For preparation of this work were used materials from the site http://www.gaap.ru

Innovation management, methods of reducing business risk.

The effectiveness of the innovation project.

Innovation management

Management today is, first of all, - management based on continuous innovation. The most important part of management in all its guises become innovation - the process of constant renewal in all areas of business. Innovations include not only the technical and technological development, but also all of the changes that improve the company's activity (new products, new services, new facilities for customers, including prices, etc.). The innovation process - improving the balance between different areas of the company in the control of profitability of each segment. All innovations are carried out in a systematic, comprehensive analysis of various aspects of the firm, in which the main thing - do not compare the results with the already achieved, and the same potential (capacity) market, which is at the present time. The purpose of this analysis - to determine how well the company uses the opportunities of the market in each period.

A comprehensive analysis of the various aspects of the firm should include:

a) evaluate the desired position for the entrepreneur in the market of goods and services offered by the company at the present time;

b) the preferred location for the owner of the current products in new markets;

c) assessment of the products, providing the decision to cease production of any goods or services because of falling demand for them;

d) the possibility of producing new products and services to new markets;

d) changes in the sales system and other changes in the work to innovation.

In the area of ??innovation the entrepreneur has the following objectives:

-Mechanization, automation false, dirty, dangerous work;

-Involvement in the staff of the company employees more skill and create better material conditions for workers.

To meet these challenges, the entrepreneur must:

-Be committed to new ideas;

-Provide each employee fairly broad field, providing it is not detailed plan, a straitjacket, but brief instructions; encourage innovative ideas arising from subordinates to organize a special information in the firm foundation of innovation;

-Provide continuous training and development of staff and centralized, and, more importantly, on an individual basis.

Innovations in Russian conditions - the main means of survival of the firm in the market. Innovations need to be introduced as the market demands, but the owner is obliged to anticipate their need and feasibility. As part of the work in this area is recommended:

-Identification of the kinds of goods and services, which will provide the desired market share;

-Identification of goods and services, replacing outdated, introduction of innovations in all other areas of the firm (outsourcing, advertising, etc.);

-Balancing short-and long-term programs of innovation (how to increase arrive, how to make better use of available funds, etc.).

Requires continuous innovation and the organizational structure of the company, which must comply with the changes occurring in the market. The structure of the company should be simple and clear, to ensure the best return on the firm; contain the minimum number of intermediate links, to provide training for the managers of the company, taking into account the perspective and the competition between managers.

In today's market conditions ongoing transformation of the company and its employees to a new, improved basis are becoming increasingly important, so discuss it in more detail, and especially the role of scientific and technical progress.

In the era of technological revolution growth of scientific achievements, expanding technical and production potential of the industry and increasing the productivity of labor has important effects on the economic activity of enterprises. Intensification of research and development is a testament to the desire of most of the available scientific and technical potential to expand production and increase profits. Like any other form of capital investment, research aim to help increase profits received by this company. With the ultimate goal, the volume and nature of the research are mainly determined by the immediate needs of the markets served by the company and the exigencies of competition, as well as the ability of the relevant units of the firm. Further research on the development of new technologies, products and services has led to the development of a special sphere of in-house activities to create innovations. It is well known that a complex set of innovations understand the different types of activities, from the initial idea and the subsequent stages of research, development, design, production of the new model, and analysis of market revenues to sales of new products in the field of marketing. From a purely economic point of view of innovation - the profitable use of the scientific, technical and other achievements through the production of new consumer value. New features have now become one of the main reserves for economic growth of the firm, sustain and enhance its competitive position in the markets. Accelerating the process of creating and marketing new products is seen as an important component of the whole marketing strategy. It is clear that at the present time maintaining a specific sales volume by only possible with continuous entry into the market of new products and services.

Commercial risk - the risk that arises in the course of the sale of goods and services produced or purchased by the owner.

Business risks arise due to the following reasons:

lower sales volumes as a result of falling demand or need for the goods, realized entrepreneurial firm, ousting his rival products, the introduction of restrictions on the sale;

increase in the purchase price of the goods in the course of the business of the project;

unexpected decline in purchases compared with the target, reducing the scale of the operation and increases the cost per unit volume of sold goods (due to the relatively fixed costs);

loss of goods;

loss of product quality in the handling (transport, storage), which leads to a reduction in its price;

increase in distribution costs in comparison with the intended result of the payment of fines, contingency fees and charges, which leads to lower profits of business firms.

Commercial risk include:

risks associated with the sale of goods (services) on the market;

risks associated with the transportation of goods (transport);

risks associated with the acceptance of the goods (services) by the buyer;

risks associated with the buyer's ability to pay;

risk of force majeure.

We should also highlight the risk of transport, its classification was first shown the International Chamber of Commerce in Paris in 1919 and unified in 1936 to the present, various transportation risks are classified according to the degree of responsibility and in four groups: E, F, C, D.

Group E includes one situation - when the vendor (seller) holds the goods on their own warehouses (ExWorks). Risk lies with the supplier until the receipt of the goods by the buyer. The risk of transport from the seller's premises to the final destination is assumed by the buyer.

Group F consists of three specific situations transfer of responsibility and risk, respectively:

FCA means that the risk and responsibility of the seller are transferred to the buyer upon delivery of the goods at the appointed place;

FAS means that the responsibility and the risk for the goods pass from the supplier to the buyer at the port by the agreement;

FOB means that the seller will not accept liability after unloading the goods from the ship.

Group C includes situations where the exporter, seller conclude a contract with a buyer for transportation, but do not take on any risk. These are the following specific situations:

CFK means that the seller pays for transportation to the port of entry, but the risk and responsibility for the safety of the goods and the additional costs assumed by the buyer;

CIF means that apart responsibilities in case CFR, the seller provides insurance cover and the risks during transportation;

CPT means that the buyer and seller share the risk and responsibility. At a certain point (usually some intermediate point transport) risks completely transferred from the seller to the buyer;

CIP means that the risks are transferred from the seller to the buyer in a certain intermediate point of transportation, but other than that, the seller provides and pays the cost of the insurance product.

The last group of terms D means that all transport risks are borne by the seller. This group includes the following specific situations:

DAF means that the seller assumes the risk to some of the border. Next, take risks on the buyer;

DES means that the transfer of risk to the buyer by the seller takes place on board the ship;,

DEQ means that the transfer of risk occurs when the goods arrive at the port of loading;

DDU means that the seller takes the transportation risks to a certain place of the contract (most often warehouse) in the buyer;

DDP means that the seller is responsible for the transportation risks to a certain place on the territory of the buyer, but the buyer pays for it.

Of note is the fact that the domestic economic literature often the commercial risk is identified with entrepreneurial risk, but the risk of loss - a type of entrepreneurial risk

The effectiveness of the innovation project

One of the simplest and most widely used methods of evaluation is the method of determining the payback period. The payback period is determined by counting the number of years, during which the investment will be repaid through the income earned (net proceeds).

If the income (profit) received data is uneven, then the payback period equal to the period of time (number of years), for which the total net cash flows (cumulative gain) exceed the value of investments.

The method of calculating the payback period is the simplest in terms of applied calculations and acceptable to rank investment projects with different payback periods. However, it has some significant drawbacks.

First, it does not distinguish between projects with the same amount of total (cumulative) cash income, but with a different distribution of income over the years.

This method, secondly, do not take into account the income of the last period, ie periods of time after the repayment of the investment.

However, in many cases, the application of this simple method is appropriate. For example, in high-risk investments when the company is interested in a return on your investment as soon as possible, with rapid technological changes in the industry or if the enterprise liquidity problems the main parameter to be taken into account in the evaluation and selection of investment projects is just payback time investment.

The coefficient of efficiency of investments.

Another relatively simple method of evaluation of investment projects is the method of calculation of the efficiency of investment (ROI accounting).

The coefficient of efficiency of investments is calculated by dividing the average annual income by the average investment. In the calculation the average annual net earnings (net of tax profit contribution to the budget). The average value of investments is derived by dividing the initial value of investments in two.

The advantages of this method include the simplicity and clarity of the calculation, the ability to compare alternative projects one indicator. Disadvantages of the method due to the fact that it does not account for the temporal component of profit. So, for example, does not distinguish between projects with the same average, but actually changing data profit margin, as well as between projects, bringing the same average annual return, but for a different number of years.

The net present value.

The accumulated discounted revenues should be compared with the value of investments.

The total cumulative value of discounted income for n years will be equal to the discounted sum of the corresponding payments:

The difference between the total cumulative value of the discounted income and the initial investment is the net present value (net present effect):

Return on investment.

The application of the net present value, in spite of the real difficulties of its calculation, is preferable to the use of the method estimates the payback period and the efficiency of investment, since it considers time components of cash flows. This method allows you to calculate and compare not only the absolute values ??(net present value), but the relative performance to which the return on investment:

ROI as a relative measure is extremely convenient when you select one project from a number of alternative, having approximately the same values ??of the net present value of the investment or portfolio of investments in acquisition, ie, choosing a number of different options simultaneously investing funds that provide max-th net present value .

The use of the net present value of the investment can also be considered when forecasting calculations factor in inflation and the risk factor, in varying degrees inherent in different projects. Obviously, keeping these factors lead to a corresponding increase in the desired percentage by which return investments and thus the discount factor.

List of Books

1. Prigozhan AI Innovation: Incentives and barriers (Social Problems of Innovation). M. Politizdat. 1989.

2. Management consulting. In 2 T. 1 / Trans. from English. Moscow: JV "Interekspert." 1992.

3. Drucker PF New reality. The government and politics. In economics and business. In a society and world view. M. Beech Chember International, 1994.

4. Mekson MH, Albert M.. Hedourn F. Principles of Management / Trans. from English. M: Business, 1992.

5. Belobragin VY Modern problems of territorial control production efficiency and product quality in the conditions of the market. - M: Standards Press, 1994.

6. Belokopytov N., Panasenko G. History and Culture Management: Atlanta: Kn. Publishing House, 1994.

7. Business Manager and / Comp. JS Drahovsky, IP Chernoivanov, TV Prehul. - M: Azimuth Center, 1992.

8. Blyakhman LS et al Introduction to Management: A Textbook. Manual / LS Blyakhman, VP Galenko, A. Minkin, St. Petersburg.: SP6UEF Publishing House, 1994.

8. Weill P. Art of Management: New Ideas for the world of chaotic change: Trans. from English. - Moscow News, 1993.

9. Vikhansky OS, Naumov A. Management: Textbook. - M.: High. School, 1994.

For preparation of this work were used materials from the site http://referat.ru/

The American School of Management

To date, the management, there are three main national schools. It is known to all of you Japanese, European and American schools. The last of them, and I would like to consider in their work.

The American model of governance infancy at the turn of the XIX - XX centuries, when the United States experienced an economic boom. Abundant natural resources have attracted leading minds of the time, the level of technological development in sharp contrast with the current at the time the system of industrial relations. Classic capitalism shifted into its highest, the monopoly stage. It was during this period evolved objective preconditions for the emergence of "scientific management" in the United States and of its leader - Frederick Winslow Taylor.

It is no coincidence that the center of the development of the theory and practice of management in the early XX century, moved from England to America. The activities of the founders of "scientific management" reflects the characteristic tendencies of the classical era of capitalism - the free market economy, individual entrepreneurship, the dominance of small and medium enterprises. The organization of labor and management in a "local economy" did not require the systematic application of science, and science itself has not been the dominant social institution, the main productive force of the industry. Such was the state of affairs in England era Arkwright, Smith, Bolton and Owen. [1, pp. 76-78] Thus, we can conclude that it was the English, or rather Anglo-Saxon model is the basis of the American School of Management.

The situation was different in the late XIX - early XX century in the U.S. that the technical level of production were among the world leaders. A few facts help to understand why America was the birthplace of modern management. Even in the beginning of the XX century, the U.S. was virtually the only country where a man could overcome the difficulties associated with its origin, nationality, demonstrating personal competence. The main factor in the development of management science there was no medium, and small and large businesses - large and extra-large corporations, such as the Midvale Steel and Bethlehem Steel, in each of which employed several thousand people. In America, Peter Drucker wrote, "large corporations are in a minority, but a minority that sets the typical structure of society, people's behavior, their way of life. Big business is the basis of any industrially developed society. It finances and also brings to life the great science. Even the trade unions and the government administration is nothing more than a social response to the phenomenon of big business. [1, pp. 76-78] It is non-interference of the state allowed the entrepreneurs who achieved success in the early days of his business, to become monopolists.

Noting the differences in the development of the industry in continental Europe and North America, some experts point out that the Americans began with the mechanization of the whole complex of operations, while the Europeans were inclined to mechanize certain tasks, such as weaving or spinning. As a result, while England were more advanced machines in the USA - assembly lines and conveyors.

In England, the technical ideas developed in the frame of academic science. That is to say, on the basis of the state, and then, over time, the practice reached. Americans borrowed ready-made best technical ideas of Europeans and immediately put them into specific technical model. North Americans approach was more flexible and swift, the introduction of technology in less enmeshed bureaucratic networks. Centers of technological progress in Europe often served as government agencies and universities in the United States - the enterprise. Leading firms have well-equipped laboratories engaged in the practical implementation of technical achievements. These are the historical preconditions of the American School of Management.

In the American School of Management accepted that the success of the company depends primarily on internal factors. Particular attention is paid to the rational organization of production, the continued growth of labor productivity, efficient use of resources. While external factors are secondary.

Rationalization of production is expressed in a high degree of specialization of individual employees and the structural units of the company and a rigid demarcation between their duties. The benefits of specialization lies in the fact that it reduces the amount of training employees, improve professional skills at every specialized workplace, separated from the production targets those who do not require skilled labor and can be performed by unskilled workers who receive lower wages, and increases capabilities of specialized equipment.

Solutions often taken individually, the same level of responsibility is the management pyramid on one or two levels higher than the level of managers with formal authority. This means that management is responsible for the actions of their subordinates.

The American company operates in a social atmosphere that preaches equality. Accordingly, the workers here are more portable, easy to change jobs in search of personal gain. It should be noted that the spirit of "sacrifice" (altruism) is rare among Americans, even in the action to the benefit of society, in fact readily detectable personal gain. Often, the firm encourages competition between employees (one of the ways to promote), which is why Americans - pronounced individualists and sometimes it is very difficult to work in a team.

For the American model of management is characterized by a hierarchical management model.

In the traditional model of hierarchical organization, first of all, there is a separation process of making strategic business decisions and operational decisions. The first concerns the business decisions of the company, which determine the main directions of its operation. After the last generation company makes operational decisions to adapt their activities to various contingencies (equipment failure, marriage, etc.) and to change the situation on the market. The basic principle of such a hierarchical coordination is characterized by the following two features:

1) Each functional unit has at most one direct superior and is not connected with other units (hence, any coordination of the two disparate units through a common direct superior).

2) Only one unit (the central section) is the head of any other unit.

It is assumed that the only viable alternative to the market mechanism in terms of effectiveness is the company as a hierarchical organization.

The duration of labor contracts may be several years in accordance with the normal duration of collective agreements used in the United States. Work on the contract is controlled by the union. It should also be noted that in contrast to the Japanese school, the unions are created in the industry, not the company. The amount of remuneration is determined by the category of the working workplace, in the calculation of wages rarely taken into account length of service of the employee.

In the American School of Management, management training can be done through the organization of lectures, discussions in small groups, analysis of specific business situations, reading, literature, business games, role-based training. Variants of these methods are annually organized courses and seminars on issues of governance. Another method, which is used more and more often, is the official rotation. Moving the head of the grass-roots level from department to department for a period of one month to one year, the organization introduces a new leader with many aspects of business. As a result, the young manager knows the problems of the various departments, clarifies the need for coordination, informal organization and the relationship between the objectives of the various units. Such knowledge is vital to the successful operation at the higher levels.

An important principle, which provides the leading position of U.S. firms in the global economy - a comprehensive quality control (the concept of "doing right the first time"). In accordance with this concept, quality is ensured by including responsibility for quality in every job description or a description of the work of the production worker. [2, pp. 360-377]

The main disadvantages of this school are:

1) Reduction of flexibility in changing work assignments, reduced sense of job satisfaction, the growth of fatigue from the monotony, the growth of absenteeism as a result of over-specialization of labor.

2) The loss of efficiency of hierarchical organization in industries where large range of products and the manufacturing process involves many steps.

3) The desire of U.S. managers receive immediate benefits, solve the question of "fast."

4) A large number of management levels (up to 11-12 in the American auto industry, compared with 5.6 in Japan), and as a consequence, the growth of bureaucracy and transaction costs.

However, despite its shortcomings the American School of Management at the moment is most popular and recognized. It was built on the principles of his work large companies such as General Motors, General Electric, Emerson, Caterpillar and many others. In fact, it is a universal management model. In the words of Peter Drucker - known representative of the American school of management - "management - is specific and defines the structure of each and every organization." The peculiarity of the American school is also a significant theoretical foundation of control processes.

The most well-known to all of us company, applying the principles of the American model of management - it is certainly a McDonald's. Therefore, I propose to consider the example of the company indicated above features of the American school.

1) A rigid hierarchical structure: each employee has only one supervisor.

2) clear written job descriptions, ranging from how to wash the floor and finishing order of cooking hamburgers.

3) Quality control of the operations on the site: the concept of "doing right the first time."

4) Strictly payment of hourly wages, penalties for delay and reprimanded for coming to work before the stipulated deadline (the authorities will have to pay you more money) - the concept of "just in time".

5) The desire to create a level playing field for workers: eating in a common room, the same salary for the same job level.

6) The prospect of career advancement in the company.

7) Promotion of competition and informant within the same group (there is a special box where you want to drop a note of all the violations of which you've just noticed).

8) The liability of superiors for the acts of his subordinates.

References

1) AI Kravchenko, history management. - M: Academic Prospect, 2003.

2) A. Bolshakov, Modern Management. - St. Petersburg: Piter, 2002.

3) Michael Meskon, Principles of Management. - M: Business, 1999.

4) Peter F. Drucker, Management Challenges in the XXI century. - M: Williams, 2003.

5) John Sheldrake, Theory of Management of Taylorism to japanization. - St. Petersburg: Piter, 2001.

Management "soft" subsystem organization. Balanced goal - a balanced motivation. What conditions must meet the incentive system

Motivation - the basic mechanism controlling the behavior of "soft" subsystem, reinforcing the "correct" behavior and punish him for the "wrong" behavior in the organization. We will try to describe the minimum set of requirements for the system of motivation. The ideal system should take into account the motivation of the entire set of existing requirements for workers (as the most well-known models can be used Maslow's pyramid) -, respectively, in the composition of the compensation package (a set of values ??that an employee receives in exchange for labor organizations) should include both tangible (money, gifts etc.) and intangible stimuli (recognition status, etc.). Recently, more and more compensation package is formed on a "menu" when given within the employee can independently configure the structure of the compensation package. But the breadth and scope of needs does not guarantee the effectiveness of the system of motivation.

In a short article is unlikely to get a complete description of the technology of construction of the balanced scorecard, but will try to illustrate this with an example, took place in real life.

Table 1. Examples of indicators

Goal

The resulting figure

Leading Indicators

Performance of the application in its entirety

Completion percentage by volume in the quarter - 100%

The average of the daily application - 100%

Performance of the application on the range

Performing range for the quarter - 100%

The average of the daily application - 100%

Providing consistent quality products

The number of shifts from ranking point below 9.9 points - 6 shifts

The average ranking point of product quality - 9.9 points

Thus, for the construction of an effective incentive system, the following conditions are met:

Availability formal purposes, each of which shall be described using and forming the resulting indicator,

indicators should be assigned to departments and staff,

and forming a resultant indicators must be set up corresponding compensation package elements, the size of the variable should be such that the "wrong" behavior resulting in a significant decrease in values ??and bonus portion should cause the satisfaction of achieving the result.

References

For preparation of this work were used materials from the site http://www.gaap.ru

Management development in the USSR and Russia

Introduction

Historically, Russia has lagged behind in economic development from the "market" of the world, and now needs to undergo reconstruction phase, the transformation of society by implementing creative synthesis of international experience with regard to its uniqueness and identity.

As you know, the economic laws, in contrast to the laws of nature are mediated by "real people" in the desires and choices which are present expectations, norms, attitudes, traditions, moral and ethical values. Our failures in the implementation of economic reforms associated with the uncertainty of a radical reconstruction of society strategy (including the political, social and moral environment) as well as a blind imitation of others and alien to our experience. We did not consider that Russia has its thousand-year history of the business, and that Russian folk ethics and aesthetics, with more pre-Christian roots, creating a living and doing business atmosphere honoring the ideals of kindness, justice and righteousness - this reminds us of a German businessman. To avoid gross errors in the future, we need to critically rethink the experience of in-house and branch management in the world, but most importantly - learn how to find the best (optimal) solutions in conditions of uncertainty and lack of stability of the socio-economic life, typical of today's Russia.

Management development in Russia

Since the XVII century., Governance in Russia was given serious consideration. Its mark in the history of Russia and the improvement of its management system left no known Russian economists, such as: AL Ordin-Nashchokin, AP Volinsky (cabinet minister from 1738 till 1740), VN Tatischev (CEO mining factories in Kazan and Siberian provinces since 1730 by 1740), a prominent Russian scientist MV Lomonosov. Great achievements in reforming management of Russia PA Stolypin. Since 1906, he combined the two posts - interior minister and prime minister. Stolypin was engaged in the improvement of local government. The building of socialism in the Soviet Union demanded the creation of a new public management organization of socialist production.

In the first years of Soviet power get most famous works of scholars such as AA Bogdanov, AK Gastev, OA Yermansky, PM Kerzhentsev, NA Amoz.

The famous Soviet scientist AQ Gastev worked on improving the theory and practice of the organization of labor. They are formulated and proved the concept, dubbed "work setting." Introduction of methods of labor units engaged in practical activities of the Central Institute for Labour (CIT), created by the fall of 1920 at the All. The most important place in the implementation of techniques briefing was given to the labor movement.

The disadvantage of the concept of labor units. Gasteva is the weak development of the method itself of labor units, the choice is too narrow base of research, a focus on the individual worker.

An important role in the development of the scientific organization of labor and management in the USSR belongs to a prominent economist OA Yermansky, who has made a significant contribution to the theory of socialist rationalization. Yermansky concept has been heavily criticized, but despite the criticism, Yermansky contribution to the theory and practice of the organization of labor is significant. Them together considerable practical material economic construction in the USSR.

The problems of the scientific organization of labor (MUSIC) have received wide coverage in the works PM Kerzhentsev. Kerzhentsev spread understanding of the scientific organization of labor in all spheres of human activity.

Particularly noteworthy discussion that took place on the development of the scientific organization of labor and management in the Soviet Union in the run-up to the II All-Union Conference on MUSIC, A few weeks before the conference were published two platforms for NOTES. One - from a group of "Seventeen" led by Kerzhentsev, the other - from the CIT led Gastev. The controversy between the two currents over the creation of a central platform adopted at the II All-Union Conference on MUSIC, which included the positive aspects of both platforms was debated.

A major contribution to the development of the theoretical foundations of the socialist organization of production processes was introduced OI Neporent. All the operations he classified on the basis of their combination in the production process into three types: serial, parallel and parallel-to-serial, showed their effect on the duration of the production cycle.

In the 30-ies. done a lot of research and practical work on the creation of the science of the organization of production, labor and management, the result of which was the release of the first Soviet textbook on the organization of production. During these years, initiated the formation of a training system with higher and secondary special education in economics for businesses and governments. In addition, it introduced a new specialty for that time - an engineer-economist of the industry profile, which soon became the leader of economics.

During the Great Patriotic War, the system of industrial management, developed in previous years did not change. The basic principle of management continued to be self-supporting in the amplification on command and leadership. Research work was carried out on in-plant planning and scheduling.

In the post-war period was renewed scientific and practical work in the field of organization and management. However, there was a decrease in the research field of production. By the end of the 50s. subjects for research on the organization and management of enterprises gradually began to expand.

Since 1957, the transition was made to the management of industry and construction on the territorial principle through economic councils (economic councils) economic areas. The main purpose of the economic councils were suppressing departmental trends in the industry.

By this time is the birth of such an important independent branch of the economy, the economic cybernetics, which is closely related to the use in practice of mathematical economics. The creation of this science in our country is carried out under the leadership of A. Berg and VM Glushkov. Cybernetics has played an important role in the development of the theory of management.

Discussion that took place in the country between 1962 and 1965., On the improvement of the system and methods of economic management, preceded by the economic reforms.

The period of time from 1965 to the present, characterized by carrying out the country's three reforms aimed at improving the management of the national economy.

They are:

1. Reform of the system of economic management in 1965

2. Management reform in 1979

3. Rapid socio-economic development (1986) and the transition to a market economy (from 1991 to the present).

In connection with the recent dramatic changes in the political system of governance in the country, a discussion on the mechanism of transition. A special commission, headed by Academician AG Aganbegian, offered three alternative transition to a market economy:

1) introduction of some elements of the market to the existing command-administrative system of management;

2) a rapid transition to a market economy without government regulation;

3) the creation of a control system based on a regulated market economy. This version management system improvement proposals met the government.

Another commission under the leadership of S. Shatalina prepared a program, known as the "500 days", which outlines a range of measures necessary for the transition to a regulated market. This program is considered by many scholars as "shock therapy."

Following the discussion, a compromise was adopted by the transition from a planned management system to a regulated market. It was based on the program "500 days", the main goal was the complete destruction of the administrative-command system. From November 1991 began the process of the formation of market relations in Russia.

However, despite these measures failed to halt the collapse of the Russian economy. The socio-economic situation in the country continues to deteriorate. Adopted many wrong decisions. One reason for this situation is launched in 1992, the government policy of non-interference in the economy of the regions and of import-export operations. Unmanaged market is not in any developed country in the world. The market requires management, governance, regulation by the state.

Currently in Russia there is imbalance in the whole mechanism of government. Domestic manager in their practice is facing such problems, which are quite unfamiliar to Western managers. Therefore, in these conditions, is especially important to obtain new knowledge on the art of management.

The methodological principles of the Russian management

The most important factor affecting the specificity of Management, is the mentality of the nation. Currently, the main concepts put forward by the formation of the Russian management mentality is given a different meaning.

Go to the market posed the problem of the formation of the Russian management. Its formation depends, first, on the level of development of commodity production. Management as a form of control is inherent in commodity production. The presence of the Russian Federation in the transition to a market economy is at the same time and the formation of management. Second, the level of technical and technological development. Thus, the revolution in the management system, which occurred in the 19th - early 20th century, was caused by the transition from handicraft to machine production. Change control system and the transition to assembly-line production. Changing it and with the transition to the latest automated and information technology.

1.Kontseptsiya copying Western management theory. It does not take into account the peculiarities of the Russian mentality. To master the theory will only need to translate Western textbooks and monographs on Russian language. Then, without changing anything, to use these provisions in practice. The probability of this concept is very high because of its simplicity and habits of mindless copying of the Western experience. But it is great peril. Suffice it to recall not adapted to the conditions of use of the Russian theory of "monetarism," the concepts of "shock therapy", voucher, etc. You can predict the new shocks that are waiting for Russia in the implementation of the concept.

2.Kontseptsiya adaptation of western management theory. Suggests a partial account of the special Russian mentality, ie not blind imitation and adaptation of Western theory to modern Russian conditions. This raises the important issue of what kind of western management theories we will adapt? Management system in Japan, the U.S., Western Europe differ greatly among themselves. Which of these options is taken as equivalent? But for every choice we run the risk of using the theory that takes into account specific characteristics, conditions of the economy, the level of socio-economic development of these countries, the mentality of the inhabitants. Here it is advisable to recall the words of Max Weber, "a Western-style capitalism could occur only in the western civilization."

As a result, adapted theory, slightly tailored to the Russian reality, will not be able to give the Russian economy is expected of them.

3.Kontseptsiya creation of the Russian theory of management. Comes fully into account the peculiarities of the Russian mentality with aspects of the world of management experience. Thus it is impossible not blind imitation of Western and Eastern experience or a complete denial of the achievements of Western and Oriental School of Management. Both the first and second equally inapplicable. It should be noted that A. Marshall has argued that: "Economics is not a set of concrete truth, but merely a tool for opening a particular truth." In our opinion, this statement is entirely possible to move on science and management. Therefore, Russia's management must have its specific content, forms and methods of management, the relevant specifics of the Russian mentality.

References

1. 2.Vihansky OS, AI Naumov Management. Tutorial - M. Gardarica, 1999.

2. The path to the XXI century: strategic challenges and prospects for the Russian economy. - Moscow: Publishing House of "Economy", 1999.

"Comparability of alternative options for management decisions. "

In a market economy, the behavior of the degree of market uncertainty is high, and according to very great practical importance attaches to methods of analysis when you need to make management decisions at the same time evaluating all possible situations and making a selection from several alternatives.

Alternatives are compared on several factors:

v The time factor;

v factor in the quality of the facility;

v scale factor of the object;

v factor in the production of assimilation of the object;

v method of obtaining information for decision-making;

v conditions of use (operation) of the facility;

v inflation factor;

v factor of risks and uncertainties.

There are several methods by which this problem is to solve:

1. methods based on discounted estimates;

2. methods based on the accounting estimate;

3. optimal programming methods (linear, nonlinear, dynamic, etc.);

4. probabilistic approach (prediction of possible outcomes and assign probabilities to them);

5. Methods: maximin, minimax, maksimaks and others;

6. method of game theory.

Estimates obtained from this, are the basis for a final administrative decision, where the last word in the selection is up to the head.

The first group of methods (at discounted estimates) is based on the following idea. Cash proceeds received by the company at different times, should not be summed directly, or you can just summarize the elements of the reduced flow. i-th element of the reduced cash flow Pi is calculated by the formula:

Pi = Fi / (1 + k) i

where k - the discount factor.

Purpose of the discount rate is the time of ordering future cash receipts (revenues) and bringing them to the current point in time. The economic meaning of this concept are: the significance of the predicted value of cash receipts through the years i (Fi) from the perspective of the current situation is less than or equal to Pi. This means also that the amount Pi for the investor at any given time and programming via i Fi years identical in value. Using this formula, you can bring in a comparable form estimates of future revenues, expected to enter a period of years. In this case, the discount factor is numerically equal to the interest rate set by the investor, ie that the relative amount of income that the investor wants to or can get them on invested capital.

So the sequence of actions the analyst is as follows (the calculations are performed for each alternative)

* Calculated the value of the investments required (peer review), IC;

· Estimated earnings (cash flow) data Fi;

· Set the value of the discount rate to;

· Identifies the elements of the reduced flow, Pi;

· Calculated net present effect (NPV) using the formula:

NPV = E Pi - IC

* Values are compared NPV;

* Preference for that option that has a higher NPV (negative NPV-a testimony of this option uneconomic).

The second group of methods (based on accounting estimates) continues to use in the calculation of predictive values of F. One of the easiest methods of this group - the calculation of the payback period investment. Sequence analyst in this case is:

· Calculates the amount of investment required, IC;

· Estimated earnings (cash flow) data, Fi;

· Select the option for which the cumulative gain for fewer years will pay for the investments made.

We illustrate the range of alternatives for the quality factor and the factor of inflation.

The quality factor of the object in the development of the administrative decision is taken into account by the following formula

Yn = UnKkn.

where Yn - given the quality of the new version of the function value of the old version of the object (investment, price, cost, complexity, costs relating to consumption, etc.);

University nominal value of the function;

Kk-factor taking into account the quality factor of the object;

n - refractive index of the quality of the weight of the analyzed object (calculated using the expert method).

The expert method:

If you have a group of people who competence in this area is not in doubt, it is possible to interview each of the experts, asking them to place the target on the importance or "rank" them. In the simplest case, we can not allow to repeat grades, although this is not necessary - the repetition of grades can always be taken into account.

The results of peer review in our example, imagine a table of ranks purposes:

Experts

Amount

Sum of the ranks

Total Rank

4.5

9.5

4.5

So, for each of the goals of Ti, we can find the sum of ranks, identified by the experts, and then the overall purpose or result Rank Ri. If the sum of the ranks assigned to the same-average.

Ratio is the quality factor of the object using the formula:

Kk = Pst / PNs.

where Pst - the value of the useful effect of the old version of the object;

PNs-value of the net effect of the new version of the object.

Initial data to account for the quality factor

object in making managerial decisions:

Number pp

Data

The value of indicators

The average annual cost of operation and maintenance of the machine tool in 1994. Cu

1680

Annual capacity of the machine in 1994., Pieces.

5180

The coefficient of the annual increase in the average annual cost for operation and maintenance of the machine in the period 1992 1998g.g.

0,048

Annual reduction factor productivity machine during the 1992 1998g.g.

0,058

We define the average annual cost of operation and maintenance of the machine in 1997 and its performance for the period:

Difficult = 1680 (1 + m 0,048) = 1921,92 USD

About 5180 = (1 - m 0,058) = 4278,68 pcs.

Where m - the period in years between the estimated year and the year for which we have data (in our case m = 3).

Initial data to account for the inflation factor

Data

The ratios

1. Number of sales "A" for 1995

2. Number of sales "B" for 1995

H. Price (annual average) production of "A" for 1995, cu

4. Price (average per year) production of "B" for 1995, cu

5. The inflation index by product "A" average in 1996

6. . The inflation index by product "B" for 1996

1380

128

168

488

1.43

1.36

The inflation factor is taken into account (in simplified form) as follows:

Yn = Y x Ip

Define the reduced by the end of 1996 prices of products "A" and "B", the volume of sales in 1995 at prices at the end of 1996 and the average inflation rate for company products.

The table at the end of 1996 the price of products "A" will be

168h1, 43 = 240.24 USD

The table at the end of 1996 the price of products "B" will be

488h1, 36 = 663.68 USD

Sales in 1995 at prices in 1996:

1380h240, 24, 128 h663, 68 = 416,482.24 USD

The inflation index for all products firm is defined as the weighted average:

Jsr = (1380h240, 24x1, 43 128 h663, 68h1, 36) / (1380h240 24 128 h663, 68) =

= 589,623.02 / 416,482.24 = 1.4157218 = 1.416

Note that if the decision is made in 1997, the prices should be given to this period.

Regardless of the estimates obtained by use of these methods, are taken into consideration and additional criteria, including the nature of the formal.

Search the paper