Introduction
Paul is the manager of the organization.
Under the organization is a group of people united by common goals. Such goals in management are making a profit and the decision of statutory objectives of the organization.
As an organization may serve enterprises, institutions, and the association of several organizations. Organizations tend to have the legal status of a legal entity (see Chapter 1). Any organization implies certain of its location on site and within the allotted space for it there, the specific structure - the constituent parts and their interaction (hierarchy relationship), and the separation between the portions provided for their duties - functions.
Characteristics of each organization should provide for:
- The main goals and objectives;
- Component parts (units);
- The distribution of functions between departments;
- The resources used;
- External and internal environment;
- The control system;
- The amount of management activity.
The purpose of the organization (the ultimate goal) is making a profit (for commercial organizations) and the implementation of its statutory purposes (for non-profit organizations). Objectives of the organization is characterized by the steps leading to the achievement of this goal. In accordance with the aims and objectives of the organization and the needs of good governance are necessary subdivisions.
The organization's activities involves the use of a variety of resources: natural (arable land, minerals, water); capital (financial and intellectual property), labor (physical and mental abilities of staff); management (the ability to efficiently dispose of resources, to organize the work). In the process of the organization is a deliberate processing of materials, energy and information.
The external environment of the organization form the country's economy, market conditions, legislation, government, state and municipal government, community organizations, partners, competitors, the media, art and technology, the moral compass of society, etc.
The internal environment of the organization is its mission, goals, objectives, staff, structure, technology, management, production, work with information.
The control system is an essential characteristic of the organization. This system assumes the existence and functioning of the management and facilities management channels to transmit command information, and status information (feedback), focused processing of this information, training activities and decision-making.
Volume management activities directly related to the composition, content and scope of the organization of solved problems and can be carried out according to the following:
- With a limited set of tasks the organization can manage one of their artists;
- Expanding the range of tasks required to manage the allocation of the organization of a special man - the manager;
- Further increase in the field of the organization associated with the multiplication and the complexity of its tasks, requires the creation of a linear hierarchy and functional specialization of leadership, the emergence of professional management - management.
Creating an organization provides for a broad set of research and applied activities, known as organizational design.
Organizational design is based on the following characteristics of the organization (see Figure 3.1):
- Nature of the activity;
- Areas of activity;
- Industry sector;
- Relationship to the government;
- Nationality;
- The degree of independence;
- The forms of ownership;
- The legal form;
- Existence of the legal entity;
- Number of employees;
- The time of the operation;
- Relationship to the business (of profits);
- The degree of formalization;
- Relationship to the budget;
- The organizational structure;
- Building management system.
By the nature of the organization can be a social and economic. Organizations - voluntary associations of citizens that are created to meet their spiritual and non-material needs. This political parties, creative unions, professional associations, etc. economic organizations established to meet the physical and social needs of individuals and society and to obtain business profits. These are companies and associations.
An organization may be in the economic, political, social, military and other fields. In the economic sphere are companies of different sectors of the economy, banks, stock exchanges, etc. In the political sphere occupied by state agencies and local governments, political parties, etc. In the social area are education, health, culture, and social support.
By industry sector distinguish industrial, transportation, agricultural, commercial organizations.
According to the authorities, organizations can be governmental and non-governmental. Government organizations are authorities to address their inherent problems. They have official status and rights and privileges. It may be, for example, research institutions, commissions, delegations, etc. The non-governmental organization created Proactive persons or entities to address specific problems and no special rights or privileges not possess.
Depending on the nationality of the distinguished national (domestic) organizations and organizations set up with the participation of foreign individuals and legal entities (for example, an enterprise with foreign investments).
According to the degree of independence the organization can be parent (parent) and its subsidiaries. Leading organizations have the right to independent decision-making, economic and financial autonomy. Subsidiaries of such independence and autonomy did not have, and work under the supervision of the parent organization.
Depending on the type of organization can be private, state, municipal and other forms - social and religious organizations, associations, etc. (see Chapter 1).
Depending on the institutional characteristics of the organization may take the form of a state or municipal enterprise, the production cooperative (co-operative) or a consumer cooperative, business partnership or company, public or religious organization, association or union, institutions, foundations (see Chapter 1).
Depending on the availability of a legal entity organization can be created with the formation of a legal entity and not a legal entity.
By the number of employees distinguish the small number of organizations (small businesses), medium and large size.
By the time of operation of the organization can be permanent, temporary (seasonal), periodically active.
In relation to the business (the profits) of the organization are divided into commercial and non-commercial.
According to the execution in government organizations can be both formal (registered in the prescribed manner) and not formal (no need to register).
Depending on the ratio of budget-financed organizations are distinguished (financed from the state or local budget) and off-budget (financed independently).
Depending on the organizational structure - building units of the controls and their interactions - are distinguished organization of linear, star, ring and other structures (see later in this section).
Depending on the characteristics of the construction and operation of the organization's management system, organizations differ in the nature of the subjects and objects of management, the number of management levels used in the management system principles (see later in this chapter).
As a scientific apparatus describing the construction and functioning of organizations, advocates the theory of systems.
1. The organization as a complex system
Under the system, in the broadest sense of the term is commonly understood as a closed objective unity of interconnected elements, ranked by certain law or principle (Fig. 3.2). The basis is the ordering of the system, as a rule, the purpose of its operation.
Systems theory has been one of the sections of Cybernetics - systematology or systems engineering. Last name use in cases where the technical aspects of designing systems that come to the fore. The concept of the system is contrasted with the absence of pattern or chaos.
With the mathematical point system - a set on which this is realized in advance the ratio R with fixed properties R. As such relationships are usually the requirements of a particular order, the relationship between elements of the system: the events taking place in one of the elements of the system in some way influence the events in other elements.
Any system is located and operated in a well-defined environment. The interaction with the external environment through input and output of the system. By entering in this case is a point or area of impact on the system from the outside, under the output - the point or outside the scope of the system.
The system may be in different states. Any condition of a certain time t can be determined accurately characterize the set values of the internal state parameter m:
m = m1, m2, ... m *.
To describe the state of the system is very convenient method of the state space or, in other terms, - the method of the phase space. Parameters of the state in this phase are called the coordinates of the system.
State of the system can be represented by points in a multidimensional space, where the coordinate axes are the values of the corresponding phase coordinates. If the state of the system changes over time, the mapping point moves in multi-dimensional phase space along a curve, which is called the phase trajectory of the system. Thus, the description of the behavior of the system, often quite complex, it is possible to replace the description of the behavior of points in phase space.
In real systems, the coordinates can generally have values that lie within certain intervals.
[Pict]
As a result, each system is characterized by a range of values of the phase coordinates, within which we can talk about the system as a single entity. This area is called the domain of existence of the system or the range of possible trajectories.
If the coordinates of the system can take within the domain of existence of any value, the systems are said to be continuous. If the phase coordinates can take only a finite number of fixed values, the system said to be discrete.
Thus, the system is characterized by three groups of variables:
inputs that are generated systems external to the study:
x = x1, x2, ... x *;
weekend, integrable system under study, defining the impact of the system on the environment:
y = y1, y2, ... y *;
coordinates state, characterizing the dynamic behavior of the system:
m = m1, m2, ... m *.
All three groups of variables are assumed to be functions of time:
x (t); y (t); m (t) (1)
Derivation of the equations is the initial state of the system, but a very important step in the analysis and synthesis of modern control theory. Acting on the inputs of the system, we translate it from one state to another, and thereby obtain the change in output that captures the new state system.
Translation system from one state to another is accompanied by a cost of matter, energy and time. Management is called optimal if the transfer system from one state to another, corresponding to the goal will be accompanied by minimal cost of matter, energy or time.
To manage the actual processes necessary to create a control system in which information circulates very complicated way, within the set of circuits that determine the structure of the system.
All the variety of connections between circuits in the system can be divided into two main types: communication, establishing mutual submission circuits and the transfer of information between senior and junior circuits, and communication, which determines the transfer of information between the circuits, standing on the same level. For ease of consideration of these links in the schemes will call them respectively coupled "vertical" communication and "horizontal" (Fig. 3).
An example of communication "vertical" may be a link between the contour "association director - director of the company" and outline "the company's director - head of department". An example of communication "horizontally" - the connection between the circuit "the planning department of the company - the planned office department" and the contour "department chief technologist of the company - engineering bureau department". Path information in the system is mainly determined by the organization of the system and the task that the system solves the moment. Sometimes this path passes through multiple paths, each of them covering a whole or partially. Therefore, the study of specific tasks becomes important flow of information through a sequence of elements of the circuits in the system, and taking into account the corresponding transformations faced with this information.
Path information in the system for solving specific problems, including elements of one or more loops, called a chain of transmission (circulation) of information in the system.
The inputs of the system comes with different values of input parameters, changing the values of which can change the current state of the system. It can be traced by observing the state of the output parameters of the outputs of the system. Thus, in the example of the system to take the company, the inputs can serve as staffing and training, composition and quality of equipment, raw materials, fuel, wages fund. The outputs of the system, characterize the current state of the company, will be the quantity and quality of production, the cost of money and wealth, etc.
Depending on the degree of mutual influence of the system and the external environment of the system are divided into open and closed (closed).
In open systems, internal processes depend strongly on environmental conditions and are providing its members a significant impact. In this regard, the function of these systems is determined by both external and internal information. An example is an automated system of management.
In closed (closed) systems, internal processes loosely coupled to the environment. Because of this closed system operation is determined mainly by the internal information, ie, one that is produced within the system itself. An example of such a system may be any autonomous automatic devices in which the control is based on signals from the elements belonging to the same system. The closure system is a strict limit of its composition and scope of the defined framework to take account of changing conditions. If the system is not closed, its state can not be strictly taken into account.
Depending on the nature of the relationship between the elements and the events taking place in it, distinguish between deterministic and probabilistic (stochastic) system.
In the deterministic communication system between the elements and events are unique, predefined character. An example of such a system is a transmission command information.
In the probabilistic (stochastic) system, in contrast to the deterministic relationship between the elements and events are mixed: the same change of system elements in each individual case can lead to a variety of events. However, there is no place to chaos - links between elements and events exist in the form of the laws of probability. For example, changes in production technology leads to a definite change in the total number of defective items, but clearly in advance to determine whether the part is a marriage or not, it is impossible. In practice, the strictly deterministic systems do not exist. Even in this example, the switch current is always the possibility that the switching device does not work, and the result of not coincide with the expected. Therefore to determine the deterministic systems as a special case of probability, in which the probability of the expected event is close to unity.
Modern manufacturing companies is part of a complex dynamic systems. Under a complex system instead of simply refers to a system that can not be seen as the sum of its component parts (emergent property). In the analysis of a complex system along with a discussion item by item, to dismember a need to study it as a whole, in the totality of relationships.
The dynamic nature of the system is determined by the fact that it is in a state of flux over time. This contrasts with the static system. Since, however, the systems are static, there is virtually no, dynamical systems, unlike static commonly called, such that the transition to the new state can not be performed simultaneously, but requires a certain time and is a result of a particular process. An example of a dynamic system can be any system of governance.
Complex systems are characterized by the following most important features:
- The presence of a common goal of functioning;
- The presence of multiple levels of government, hierarchically related;
- The presence of subsystems, each of which has a goal of operation, subordinate the general purpose operation of the system and managed by one control system;
- The presence of a large number of connections between subsystems within each subsystem and the need extensive network management;
- The composition of a complex system - the presence of man, machine and the environment;
- Resistance to internal and external disturbing factors and the presence of elements of self-organization.
A complex system is always composed of subsystems.
Subsystems can be recovered if each of them has:
- The purpose of the operation, subordinate to the common goal of the whole system;
- A set of elements that make up the system;
- A management system that is included in the overall management.
In this sense, the term "system", "subsystem", "element" are relative. A particular system may be a subsystem of the system of higher level. Conversely, the same system may include a system of a lower level.
The division of the system into subsystems may be different depending on the principle taken as a basis.
Most complex operating systems under the action of a large number of random factors. Therefore, to predict the behavior of a complex system can only be probabilistic, ie, to determine the probability of the expected state of the system to receive distributions or some numerical characteristics of random variables that reflect the behavior of a complex system.
When building management systems of any complexity, consider the following basic principles (or laws) of cybernetics.
The law of requisite variety. The essence of this law is that the system requires a variety of complicated control, which in itself has a sufficient diversity. The law of requisite variety justifies the need for contingency planning, development of optimal solutions. Management, which is based on the consideration of a single version of the plan can not be considered scientific.
Optimal control, built on the consideration of various options, is, on the contrary, scientific management, the relevant law of requisite variety. And the more complex, and hence the system itself is more diverse, the more important in the management of optimality.
The law of a difference from the private (law of emergence). This law is the existence of a system of holistic properties, ie properties such systems, which are not inherent in the constituent elements. The larger the system and the greater the difference in scale between the integer part and the higher the likelihood that a property may differ from the properties of the parts. Emergence is one of the manifestations of the principle of dialectical transition from quantitative to qualitative changes.
Numerous manifestations of the law of emergence. The effectiveness of large-scale production, the social impact of urbanization, the ability of the major events in the field of basic research (space, nuclear energy), industry, defense.
The law of a difference from the private shows the difference between the local optima of individual subsystems and the global optimum of the whole system. This law shows the need to consider the integral of the system, to achieve the overall optimum.
In the synthesis of control systems is considered that the general (emergent) interests are concentrated in the center of the system, the central authority at the top level of the hierarchy, while private, intrinsic (inherent), are located in the respective.
The law of external addition. In complex systems, forecast state of the environment and the development of formal methods of control actions can be implemented only approximately. Because of this always requires meaningful control of a formalized management scheme and adjusting it with the additional (external), informally decisions. Such adjustments can be considered as the result of the functioning of the black box, built between the output of a formalized management subsystem and the input of the controlled subsystem.
Deviations "unaccounted" for planning and establishing systems will be the regularity, the more complex the system. The control system should therefore have adequate reserves, compensators and regulators to adjust these "unaccounted for" deviations.
The set of informal adjustment procedures algorithmically (formalized) received the control actions and set the different parameters is called an external complement and theoretical necessity of such informal payments - the principle or law of external addition.
The law requires the construction of a feedback system with closed loops. For the economy, this means the need to focus the plan and the account in the same hands.
Antienthropy Act is to ensure that the management system is always directed at reducing uncertainty in knowledge of the construction and behavior of the control system by increasing awareness of information for decision making. Management is always connected (for a given degree of complexity of the system) with limited degrees of freedom necessary to determine goal-directed behavior of the system.
The organization as a complex system characterized by a variety of structures. The main types of structures are (Fig. 4) linear, ring, star, multiply, cell, pyramid, combined.
With linear structure, each element of the system (unit) is connected to two adjacent. Passing through the system command information and status information become the property of the whole system. All links are equal. Hierarchical relationships are absent. Loss of any element of the system breaks down, for no other links, except with the neighbors is not provided.
The ring structure is different from linear only in the extreme elements communicate with each other. It helps to administer in two opposite directions and thereby increase its reliability. Hierarchical relationships are absent.
Stellar structure is a further development of the roundabout. Here we have the central unit through which the information can be quickly switched to any other. The central element of the system is usually hierarchically above the rest.
Multiply structure suggests the existence of links each element of the system with everyone. Typically, the communication and the hierarchy there is no equivalent. Such a system provides maximum reliability of information transmission.
The honeycomb structure is created when there is a need sewage information for a variety of interconnected lines, and thus maintain high reliability.
The pyramidal structure is hierarchical: each parent of the system is a senior in relation to the downstream. Such a structure has a number of levels, and higher than the level, the more his subordinates.
The combined structure is a combination of two or more structures with all their properties. For example, the combination of a multiply-and ring structures gives structure to the "wheel", in which, on the one hand, it may tantamount to control both sides of the ring, and on the other - there is a central element, providing a hierarchy in the system.
Any structure can be estimated using the following key features - volume, reliability, placement of order, centralization, efficiency.
The volume describes the structure of its quantitative composition: the number of levels of elements, the connections between them.
The reliability of the structure shows its vitality, ability to function in different environments.
Accommodation structure describes the position of elements in space and time: the corresponding relationship, subordination reserved role.
Orderly structure shows the degree of formalization of its construction and operation, opportunities and mechanisms for changing the structure.
Centralization of a structure is the distribution of functions between the center and the periphery of the system and the volume of authority.
Efficiency means the ability to structure the system response to changes in the situation, the time parameters of this reaction and its price.
A typical example of an organization as a complex system is the production and Economic System (PES).
The main type of industrial and economic systems is the enterprise. Let us, for industries, some of the necessary information from the theory of complex systems.
Modern industrial enterprise is an integrated production complex, united by a common goal - the release of products of a given form.
The composition of an entity shops, sites and services (storage, transport, communication, etc.), as well as the shape of their relationship in the process of creating products constitute the industrial structure of the enterprise. The production structure is included in the overall structure of the enterprise, which includes more than her various works general services (transport, storage, etc.) and the economy - housing and communal room, dining room, hospital, stadium, etc.
To manage the huge and complex set of forming an enterprise, creates the necessary management structure. On management will be discussed in the next chapter. Here we only note that this management structure covers all parts of the production - from the workplace to the enterprise as a whole, and all activities of the company - manufacturing, financial, capital construction, logistics, marketing, etc.
The most important characteristic of industrial production, largely determines its armament and machine control structure is the type of production. Distinguish mass, batch and unit production. They differ in output and frequency output.
Mass production features a large volume of output at a strictly limited range of (manufacturing hours, automobiles, motors, etc.). This enables the use of high-performance specialized equipment and tooling. This type of production - the most efficient: it achieves high productivity, a significant margin, low cost product.
For series production, characterized by limited production of goods and recurrent nomenclature. This type of production, depending on the range and volume of output, in turn, is divided into high-volume and short-run production. For mass production is characterized by a relatively small range, which makes it possible to use both the universal and special equipment. Mass and especially large-scale production can largely realize the benefits of specialization. The shops here are generally organized by subject basis. This type of production is common in the radio industry, instrument, machine, etc. A single production is characterized by the production of a variety of single-purpose products in small quantities. Equipment and tooling are often universal, the share of manual work compared to other types of production is much higher. This type of production is less economical than the weight and mass. It pays off only in the event that provides national economic need for this type of product. A single production dominated by experienced companies in the manufacture of unique high-end machines and units - powerful radio equipment, rolling mills, ships, turbines, etc.
Industrial enterprise as a control object is characterized by the following main features:
1. The variety of structures, which is expressed in a large number of different structural elements, such as workshops, farms, laboratories. Nature difference elements which, as known, is one of the essential features of complex systems is very pronounced.
2. Multiply-connected elements of production and economic system, which is expressed in a set of the most diverse connections between the elements. The transfer of various parts in the course of the process, the transmission of different types of energy, maintenance and repair of production tools, information communication, transport communications, social ties between members of the team - this is not a complete list of the different types of communication elements. Communication and relationship elements are stable, constant proportionality.
3. Dynamism, expressed in constant change of conditions of production and economic systems: a cycle of the production process, change it in time, the oscillations of the structure and relationships of its elements, a variety of external and internal influences.
4. Multicriteriality, which is one of the most characteristic properties of industrial and economic systems. On the one hand, there is a lot of criteria, such as product range, the total volume of products sold, the amount of profit, profitability, performance of tasks for new technology, labor productivity. Only a joint assessment of these indicators gives a description of the system. On the other hand, all the subsystems at different hierarchy levels can be characterized by its partial criteria constituting together a tree goals and criteria.
5. The probabilistic nature of the production processes. The nature of the operation of any production is probabilistic in nature: the production is constantly influenced by many random factors. Here are some typical examples. At any time of accident can fail certain items of equipment and production will lose a major part of the active funds. By chance there is a marriage in its production (technological marriage), and at the expense of supplies (purchase marriage), which leads to employment losses. Just by chance there are losses in the labor force due to staff turnover, sickness, and other similar factors. Characterized by occasional interruption in supply of components and materials. Random variables are the duration of all manufacturing operations that affect the duration of the production cycle. This list could be continued. These phenomena lead to a delay in the production plan, an increase in work in progress.
The many challenges businesses require allocation of a number of activities. First of all, the complex of measures to provide the necessary technical and organizational level of production, rhythmic and smooth progress of the production process. Particular attention is paid to ensuring the stability of process conditions and operations in terms of performance, reliability, security, accuracy, and stability in accordance with the requirements of normative and technical documentation with efficient use of productive resources.
In order to establish science-based in-plant proportions, rules and tasks divisions of the enterprise in accordance with the plan of economic and social development, the production of high quality products, efficient use of resources, environmental protection is a promising and ongoing technical, economic and social planning.
To improve the organizational and technical level of production methods and means of standardization works on standardization.
To ensure production efficiency and product quality, achieve high maneuverability and flexibility, reduce cycle time "research - design - development of new products" is the technical preparation of production.
For timely implementation schedule specified quality production, and maintenance of material flows as planned is the operational planning of production.
To achieve timely and accuracy of measurements of the products, materials and raw materials, process conditions, the characteristics of the equipment and tools carried metrological support.
In order to prevent the production and preventing the release of (supply) products do not meet the requirements for timely and meaningful information about the actual quality of the products developed and conducted inspection and testing of products.
To improve the productivity and quality of work and the level of social development of the collective methods and means of the scientific organization of labor (HOT), to improve the system of remuneration made arrangements for labor and wages.
To provide enterprise workers and specialists, creating the conditions to enhance their professional skills and qualifications are working with the staff.
To ensure timely and comprehensive enterprise with raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, components, equipment, tools and other material goods with minimal cost is logistics.
To provide businesses with orders and timely delivery of products to customers in accordance with the planned targets and the conclusion of supply contracts subject to the nomenclature, the requirements for quality and completeness of organized marketing.
To ensure the commissioning of fixed assets, production capacity and facilities, improve the efficiency of building production and quality of construction is the capital construction.
For the smooth and efficient use of financial resources and bank loans in order to achieve business objectives and fulfill its financial obligations arranged the necessary financing activities.
Provide guidance enterprise accurate data describing the progress and results of all types of industrial and economic activity for timely decision-making requires an established accounting and reporting.
Finally, the identification of the economic results of the various parties to assess the activity of the enterprise work units, opening reserves and training of current and future management decisions is impossible without a thorough economic analysis.
Depending on the nature of the enterprise components are the following subsystems.
The technical subsystem is interconnected, mutually conditioned, located in an agreed proportion condition set of equipment (machines, equipment, machines and groups of machines, production lines), designed to solve a specific problem. Reconciliation is in alignment capacities of the main production process, according to technology, serving the primary and secondary production processes, modern requirements.
Technological subsystem is a set of rules that define the sequence of operations and production processes, in which products are created with certain parameters and quality. Technological subsystem requires strict compliance with these regulations at all stages of the production process. Management subsystem in the process is to thoroughly develop the technology, further improving it as necessary, and careful control of the quality of the work in its entirety.
The subsystem is a collaborative effort between his organization needed to achieve a certain goal, qualitative and quantitative proportions of certain types of work, layering and interconnections in the production process.
Economic subsystem is a unity of economic processes and economic relations on all sides of production. The mechanism of action of economic laws is manifested in the company in the process of moving its assets in their monetary, industrial and commodity form. The movement of funds of the company is the material basis of technical, technological and socio-economic processes in the enterprise.
Social subsystem is a link between people in the production process. Communication is the foundation of human existence industrial and economic systems. General economic interests of the collective PES are to increase company profits as a result of the collective. Since PES acts in the production process as a relatively independent group, then this group appear their specific economic interests that do not conflict with the interests of society or the individual. But some groups and members of the team within the company, based on the features of the technology and organization of production, solve different problems and have a definite differentiation of objectives and interests.
As the staff of the company is its main and active force, it must be addressed not only technical and economic issues, but also the task of educating people, raising the cultural and technical level of education, knowledge, etc.
The subsystem of the organization of production allows efficient use of people, equipment, instruments of labor, factory space, creates the conditions for increasing the efficiency of production within the required resources.
All of these subsystems are interconnected and only in the unity of the enterprise as a system account.
Consider the structure of the enterprise as a control object.
For the production of need, as is known, the following elements: the subject of labor, means of production and labor of man, his purposeful activity.
The preparatory phase of production includes the following processes:
- Financing;
- Create a model of the product and its manufacturing program;
- Selection and training;
- Providing businesses the means of production;
- Logistics.
To implement the direct product manufacturing processes, along with the preparation of necessary support for production. It primarily involves the provision of equipment and instrument repair software, power supply, etc. This group should include processes to ensure high and stable quality products. Finally, this group will also include the processes associated with the provision of occupational health and safety.
The processes of transport, infrastructure and constitute an independent group. By analogy with the preparation processes, implementation processes are located at the intersection of the sphere of production and the sphere of circulation. For they are the end of the first act, for the second - the initial one.
The company as a complex dynamic system is constantly evolving. Many companies have their own research base (research laboratories, design offices, etc.), which, along with external research and design organizations conduct research and development to further the development of production. In enterprises also tend to work carried out on modernization of production.
In enterprises is also a lot of work on social development team.
The foregoing leads to the conclusion that the elements of the control system should include the development processes of the enterprise - the scientific, technological and social.
From the point of view of the managed system approach (production) enterprise system can be divided in accordance with the processes in the subsystem - the development of production, pre-production, primary production, maintenance and service of production, the sale of products (Fig. 5). At the same time, each of the subsystems can be considered as a system.
2. Managing a complex system
Management in the broadest sense is a function of a system aimed at preserving or basic quality system (the loss of which leads to its destruction), or for the execution of the program, ensuring the sustainability of the system and to achieve its intended purpose, or on the development of the system.
Governance is a necessary condition for the normal functioning of any system. Any process, regardless of its nature, can be carried out only in the right direction if the control actions of the controls.
The emergence of management as a special kind of social activity is primarily due to the emergence and development of the division of social labor. The social division of labor in two main forms - a formation of large specialized production and differentiation within their borders processes. As a result of crushing of concrete labor into specialized forms part of an extensive network of peripheral cell production, each of which is the economic cell. Separation and isolation of specific work pieces causes a quantitative correlation between all parts of the production, and the result is a net economic ties that the wider, deeper than the division of labor.
Management in the industrial sector can be defined as the targeting of groups of people to organize and coordinate their activities in the production process.
There are three main areas of control:
- Control systems of machines and processes;
- Management of the processes occurring in living organisms;
- The management of human groups, solving a particular problem.
Careful review of management processes in all areas of their general patterns revealed that the control allows you to set a single theoretical framework. This problem has been cybernetics - the science of the general laws of nature management, living organisms and machines. From the standpoint of cybernetics management systems of different nature - biological, technical, social - have common patterns. All of these control systems together, in principle, the same structure: a mathematical description of the processes occurring in the control systems of different nature is like.
Cybernetics as regards management information circular process carried out in a closed loop to achieve the target set of actions. Management always occurs in some material medium. In the process of management involves the management body to manage and connect these links. From the governing body of the object passes control channel is a direct connection for the transmission of control actions. From the control object to the control passes the feedback channel for the transmission of information on the state of the control object, environment and other factors of the situation.
The purpose of action is achieved by the operation of the control object. To achieve the goal of action to control must be brought into the desired state by the control of information impact.
For information about the state of the control object, the subject of the impact of the environment and called state information. Control actions is information about what, how and when should make the object of management, and are described as the command information.
Called a closed-loop control circuit consisting of the control and facility management related channels and direct feedback loop in which circulates respectively command information and status information (Figure 7).
Command information generally depends on the status information.
Function governing body is to transform the state information to the command information in accordance with the intended purpose of action. Function of the control object is to implement a command information of defining steps to achieve this goal, and in the collection of state information. The function of direct and channel feedback is to transmit the status information from the control object to the control and command information in the opposite direction.
As the basis for management are information processes, the determination of the amount of information needed to generate the control actions, the list of variables, their dimensions, the time of receipt, discrete, means of communication, speed, and reliability of the transmission of information signals is of paramount importance.
The essence of the process of information processing in the control system is what we commonly call the decision-making. On the basis of the task - the objectives of control and data - information about the object and the state of the environment, the head according to certain rules takes only favorites of many possible, the impact of the object.
As an immediate goal management system supports the achievement of indicators of the condition and operation of the system. As these indicators - the objective function or performance criteria include the following: the planned target for the output, profitability, profit, productivity.
The achievement of the performance criteria set points by selecting a body of the control inputs to the control object. This selection is the main content of information processing in the control system. On its basis in the governing body of the decision. Developing solutions are based on specific rules - algorithms. The formalization is to create a content-based, semantic description of this process, the model linking the task management function with the - source data systems.
For normal operation of the production control system must have the following data:
- To manage;
- An ideal model for the future operation of the facility, designed so that the target was achieved optimally;
- A model of the actual state of the object to compare it with the ideal model and to find deviations;
- Information aimed at eliminating deviations of the actual state of the model of the ideal.
The availability of these data is ensured by the three main phases of management: 1) planning, 2) accounting and analysis, 3) regulation.
Planning is divided into the feasibility, operational and manufacturing. The first perspective and combines ongoing planning and construction in relation to specific elements of facility management (production capacity, manpower, material resources, etc.). It substantiates the results and required resources. The second puts its main task to plan the implementation of production processes (development calendar standards, giving orders for the jobs, etc.) with the aim of linking in time and space of individual elements of production.
The planning phase is a leading management, because it can help companies set a target, meaning and methods of management. Through her business is communication with the external environment, links with the country's economic policy, systems, financing, incentives, etc.
From planning and regulation independent record: records are maintained in terms of the plan, and the control task is to keep the actual performance of the object-level targets. Planning a guideline.
Implementation of the plan is guaranteed by the regulation phase. The point of this phase is to remove the current mismatch (disturbances) in production. Phase control is associated with a gliding through the records.
Analysis of the phases of planning and regulation shows that the organization of production processes is multivariant. The same scheduling may be enforced by a plurality of different, are not equal to each other from the results of ways. The same can be said about the phase control: the elimination of disturbances can be a different, more and less effective ways. And among the many options for planning and management of production, as a rule, there is the best, the best. Finding it is one of the main tasks of management. Choosing the best options to solve involves the processing of vast amounts of diverse information.
Consider the example of the role and place of information in enterprises and instrumentation engineering.
For companies Industry (radio enterprise, the enterprise communications equipment, etc.) are usually characterized by the following features: large scale production base, a large proportion of assembly operations, short production cycle, frequent changes in production models, a small range of products. The period of turnover of working capital - one and a half months. In this plant there are high speed assembly line (measure 19), the significant growth in output, a large number of suppliers (over a thousand) for their constant change. The timing and amount of supplies within the planning period is quite uncertain. The number of consumers can reach many thousands.
In these conditions for production purposes the following information:
- Design specification parts, components, connections, borrowed cards, standardized and standardized parts and components; delivery list; specification packaging;
- Technological routes passing the parts and components of the shops and sites with a list of operations performed in each of them;
- The types and kinds of equipment, the degree of their load for the individual transactions;
- Cutting conditions, which are defined speed parts or tools in a minute, feed, depth of cut or the number of double strokes of pressure equipment;
- Specification of tools and special equipment, the rules of their consumption per unit of production;
- Expenditure norms of raw materials and semi-finished products purchased (exploded, and operational-based specification);
- Cost standards of living labor (time or output);
- Fixed prices, specifications number of support workers;
- Statements of labor-intensive products;
- Fuel consumption rates, power, compressed air, steam;
- The schedule of preventive maintenance;
- Methods to control the quality of parts, assemblies, components (solid, sampling, statistical);
- Price list for materials, classified into groups, subgroups and types.
Receiving, processing and use of all this information "by hand" unacceptable for the following reasons:
- Work with information is extremely slow, not having time for the actual processes and the needs of production, hence the heavy losses in efficiency due to non-optimal use of opportunities of the enterprise;
- Information environment requires greater labor costs, and thus increase the number of employees;
- Low rate of exchange of information between the government and managed objects (vertical), and between the interacting objects (but horizontally) gives the management and can not affect its efficiency;
- Difficult to use the information - timely sampling required for the management of data; broken the speed control;
- Inevitable duplication of information, which leads to higher management;
- Production managers are overloaded information that is not able to use.
Attempts to pass some information tasks computing lead only to the mechanization of information processing, without solving all the problems mentioned above. Overcoming these difficulties lies in the ways of complex automation of production control.
Similar difficulties with the information management processes exist in enterprises of mechanical engineering, automotive industry, such as the Volga Automobile Plant, where the design capacity of the plant 660,000 cars a year and the total number of industrial production personnel 66,000 people. Length of the assembly line is there are more than 150 kilometers. Huge-scale production of the related and relevant information flows. Thus, the range of products only domestic production reaches 7,500 types of parts and assembly units. They are used for the manufacture of dozens of different complex processes: mechanical and heat treatment, casting and forming, welding, brazing, painting, drawing mastics and protective plastics, electroplating, chemical plating, assembly, etc. The plant consumes about 4 thousand types of process materials and components. As for the general nomenclature used in the production of material resources, including materials for repair and maintenance needs, spare parts and equipment, tools and fixtures, it reaches 400,000 names! The remedy here, as in instrument, Radio Building - the creation of a modern enterprise management system.
To better understand this system, we return to the concept of management.
Management - a very succinct, multidimensional concept. It encompasses the management of the company and the giant, and driving a car. Office of the State and the machine, and the troops own actions - all this control. What is the general meaning of such different manifestations of the word?
First of all, any purposeful process always consists of two types of operations - workers and management operations. For example, metal cutting. Operating procedures - removal of chips, actually cutting metal, control operation - Serial installation tool in such positions as to result in cutting some form of receiving the item. Even something as simple as chopping wood, requires a good kick - working operation, and the correct direction of the ax at impact - control operation.
To implement business operations, there is technological or technical equipment: machine tools, robots, transport equipment and aggregate together in areas, workshops and factories. But by themselves they are useless. Supports machines should move along definite trajectories, transport devices in time to submit to the machines the workpiece and the tool, in a certain order must be started in the production of different batches of parts. All these operations must be interconnected with each other, as well as in space and time. In other words, all this diversity requires management.
To determine all that for his purposeful activity requires management cybernetics there is the term "management entity". Indeed, the control is always something: enterprise, shop, tools, aircraft - the object of control.
All real systems can be roughly divided into three groups:
- Systems that make up the elements of which are not related, such as a group of individual disparate parts;
- A system whose elements are linked together tightly when the situation and, in general, the behavior of each element is uniquely determined by the position (behavior) of the other, such as metalwork;
- Systems that occupy an intermediate position. Changing the status of individual items freely in the range defined by the condition of another element. The point on the wheel rim may be in any position, but within a single condition: its distance from the axis should always be the same.
Obviously, the system can only manage the third type. Neither the metal structure or randomly folded a number of details can not be controlled.
Thus, any object management should first have varying characteristics. Changing these characteristics determines the behavior of the control object. Between these characteristics should be constant communication. Connections define the structure of the object. Finally, it should be possible to change some of the variables directly from the outside.
At any given point in time the object's variables are as defined control values. These values, or "state", determine the general state of the control object.
Among the variables are usually distinguished:
input variables - which can act directly outside;
output - which can directly affect the outside, but are available for monitoring (measurement);
Internal - variables that can affect the outside and which is difficult or impossible in general difficult to control.
The input variables are changed under the influence or control of disturbing influences. Control actions, or "control" - this is something you can manage in the management process. Disturbances interfere with the process of management, use them, they can not influence.
Among the output variables is isolated group of controlled variables that determine the management goal - the desired behavior of the control object, such as spindle speed, movement support, technical and economic performance.
Formal dependence, reflecting the totality of the structural links between the input, internal and output variables is called a mathematical model of the control object.
Obviously, the desired behavior of controlled variables can only be achieved through a targeted change of control actions. Focused, because when it is necessary to consider not only the desired behavior, but also to know the nature of the relationship between the input and output variables, the possible changes in the disturbances. Few know what should be the output of control object, you need to be able to get it. Indeed, the complexity of the control is determined not only by the presence of disturbances, but also the complexity of causal and temporal relationships between input and controlled variables. If it were not for this complexity, the need for control theory, cybernetics would disappear. No wonder so highly valued good methods and control algorithms, and where management is still not possible to formalize, we appreciate good managers with experience, skills to intuitively take into account this complexity.
Thus, the task of management - specifically, with regard to the purpose and object properties of disturbances and develop the controlling influence.
If this task is performed by man, then we are talking about the manual control if a technical device - an automatic control. If the development of "management" and the people involved, and technical devices, such control is called automated. In any case, there is something or someone, what (or who) generates control. To indicate this, "that" in the theory of automatic control adopted the term "controller" or "controller" in the more general case it is called a unit of decision-making.
The terms "control device", "control unit" in our time, when used to control computers, providing through time-sharing simultaneous control of multiple objects, poorly reflect the actual state of affairs. They left us a legacy from the days when the management of each object controls provide a real technical device - relay-contact block, the regulator. Preferable to use the term "control". Below it will mean a set of formal rules by which the information used for the management, control is processed into effect.
These rules are called algorithms or control laws. Algorithm - if the control actions produced by a multi-step process, the law - if one stage.
The law is usually expressed by the formula or table. The formula can include both algebraic and integral-differential dependence and logic. Any law can be represented by the algorithm, and as any formula can be represented as a sequence of simple operations. However, not every algorithm can be opposed to the law. There are methods of decision-making (control actions), which, in essence, for various reasons, are characterized by a sequence of individual steps: Methods of linear and dynamic programming, branch and bound, etc.
To generate the control actions, in general, uses information about the current values:
- Controlled variables;
- Defining influences - the variables that define the desired behavior of the control object;
- Disturbances. Setpoint effects produced generally outside the control on the upper level. In cases where this information is recorded in advance in the memory and used for controlling at the right moment of the control system include setting unit (a software management logic - the programmer).
Such a scheme can be found today at the beginning of most books on the management of many different systems, such as socio-economic (company, shop, area) and technical (machine, robot, vehicle). The basis of the scheme - the two rectangles. One of them - what you need to manage. This may be a factory, workshop, production site, the process unit. Another box - something that should control the object - control. The plant - is the company's administration, using an automated control system (ACS), on the site - ASU process, as applied to the process unit - working or automatic device to control the unit. Rectangles - element and object management - linked by two lines - straight and feedback. Along the lines of circulating information: one - there, in the other - back. There, on the subject of management, comes from a control command information: what, when and how to do it. Conversely, in the control information received from the object of his condition - report that, when and as made, in what position are the elements of the machine tool, robot, etc. This information on assignments, availability of materials, tools, work machines, etc. in a control state information is processed in the command information. On the basis of this processing are produced guidance on further work object, the commands to move, etc.
So the first thing: control - is the impact of, or control devices to control objects.
Second, the impact on the facility management is carried out in accordance with the decisions of the authorities.
Third, targeted information processing, which is the basis of management, it is an intellectual, mental challenge. Today, it is more and fast growing entrusted computers.
Due to the fact that some changes in the control variables for various reasons, may have a short duration, and the information about these changes affect the selection of the control variables, the control must further include a memory and - a device for fixing the events in the previous times.
The control system - is not material. This is a set of mathematical models of the real object of management and control model - an algorithm or control law. The main objective of this concept - formal or formalized development of the law or of the control algorithm on a known object model.
Actual production complex control system is a set of control loops are located at different levels of governance, linked both vertically when the system is a low-level object control for the top level, and horizontally if the control variables of one object needs information the state of one or more other variables.
To control the actual production system (plot, shop, factory) to manage a very large number of variables, both production and technology. The management of each of them does not necessarily require information about all the others. As a rule, for each of the variables to consider no more than five or six variables. Indeed, any technological complex is relatively isolated from the technological and auxiliary units are usually connected with each other through one, two variables are rarely. Moreover, control problems at various levels of control have different in nature and objects of management entities. At the lower levels of the variables are, as a rule, the parameters of the process equipment: position, speed, temperature, pressure, etc., on the top - the parameters of the material flow: the processed materials, tools, equipment, finished products, etc.
All systems differ both in the type of the object, and a control method.
If a mathematical model of the control object reflects the relationship between the established values of the variables, ie, the inertial properties of the object can be neglected, such an object is called static and static control system accordingly. For example, the problem of distribution of processing technology units.
If the inertial characteristics of the object can not be neglected and the model includes the time, the object of management and control system is called dynamic. For dynamic systems include the well-known system of regulation parameters of technological units.
